Summary

We will investigate the ecological consequences, as well as socio-economic and cultural drivers of subsistence hunting, associated with old and new timber concessions, on large mammals such as the Black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus), along the Las Piedras river, Madre de Dios, Peru.

Standard un-bounded line-transect census techniques will be used to assess abundance, density and community structure at six sites. The degree of hunting pressure at each site will be assessed using interviews with timber concession personnel and data on human population density.

The market niche for bushmeat and non-market incentives to hunting will be examined using interviews with timber concession personnel, vistors to local markets and NGO responsibles, plus complementary observation of life histories.

The project will provide Peruvian organisations with urgently required information of socio-political and environmental value with respect to an ongoing programme of “ecological- economic-zoning” of Madre de Dios and the development of regulations governing the management of timber concessions.

Background

Large mammals are conspicious elements of tropical ecosystems. They often represent the dominant group in terms of biomass in the mammal assemblage with arboreal large bodied monkeys contributing the greatest proportion.They provide vital ecological services and play an important role in forest ecology through seed predation and dispersal, pollination, folivory and frugivory (e.g. Terborgh 1983).

Tropical rainforest are the richest terrestrial ecosystems on the planet (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1992). Peru is one of the “megadiverse” countries with great ecological diversity found within its borders, although 44% of the territory still remains relatively unknown to science (Rodriguez, 2000). Little is known about complex ecological interactions and processes that provide already valuable economic resources for important environmental services on local, regional and global levels (Kremen, 2000).

The connection between forestry and hunting has recently become a focus of attention as a potential major source fuelling local primate extinction (Pearce Ammon 1995, Spinney 1998 New Scientist). Strong evidence exists that even in areas where forest is still intact, hunting can lead to extermination of large mammal populations (Bodmer et al. 1994; Alvard et al. 1997; Peres 1999a). Overhunting can cause an ecological inversion of mammalian biomass and can lead to landscape-level changes in habitats and faunal assemblages (Rylands et al. 1997; Cullen et al. 2001). Their importance for the regeneration of fragmented forest has been emphasised (Terborgh 1983; Oliveira 2000).

No rigorous mammal population censusing has been carried out to date along the Las Piedras river (which flows in a south-easterly direction through the heart of Madre de Dios). The only existing investigation into the status of mammals in this area was relatively minor and consisted of simply a pilot investigation of which mammal species, and how many, were being hunted (Victor Velasquez, pers. comm.). The conclusion of this study was that a maximum of 40,000 Black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus) are likely killed each year along the Las Piedras river, and that local extinction is inevitable for some species if the status quo is maintained.

Recent political developments aim to zone Madre de Dios into appropriate ecological and economic land-use zones, under an UNDP-funded project. A new law is scheduled for 2002/3 that will regulate land-use zones and ensure sustainable natural resource utilisation. There is an urgent need for a census-study in this area in order to help gauge current impacts, and thus assist land-use management (Chris Kirkby, pers. comm.).

A number of organisations including Conservation International and the Tambopata Reserve Society have suggested the potential for developing a protected area in the Las Piedras region. This is based upon the high botanical diversity, which is reputedly quite different from other protected areas in Madre de Dios, namely the Manu Biosphere Reserve, the Bahuaja Sonene National Park and the Tambopata National Reserve.

Hunting restrictions may be required to prevent local extinction of some mammal species. These, however, will have to be based on scientific data regarding abundance and socio-economic conditions. Subsistence hunting for example can be crucial to the livelihoods of native and immigrant people alike. The scientific literature contains sufficient information on the reproductive potential of many of the species (i.e. intrinsic rate of natural increase). This, in line with data on abundance, can be used to ascertain sustainable harvest levels. This goal, however, can only be achieved with basic information about population abundance and how this changes from place to place along the Las Piedras river.

Study Area

Site: Rio de Las Piedras, Department of Madre de Dios, Peru

The study sites will be situated along the Rio de las Piedras (13º08´10´´S, 69º36´40´´W) 50 to 100 km northwest of Puerto Maldonado. The department of Madre de Dios is sparsely populated, with fewer than 0.40 people / km2, 39% of whom live in the departmental capitol Puerto Maldonado.

At approximately 200 m above ground level lowland forest is the dominating vegetation type with variation due to different hydrological regimes found in the seasonally flooded alluvial flood plains along the river and the undulating hills characterising the adjacent landscape.

The area lies in close proximity to protected areas, well known for their biological diversity, such as Manu National Park, Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone and. Pristine and semi-pristine areas, due to their favourable ecological location within the transitional zone between humid tropical and subtropical rainforest with an average annual precipitation of 2,400 mm. Its putative role as a Pleistocene refugium and the great variety of different ecosystems contribute to an exceptional biodiversity, arguably one of the richest hotspots worldwide, which has been revealed by biological inventories that have been undertaken since 1976. Madre de Dios is home to 10% of the world’s bird species (~800), and up to 5% of the world’s mammal species (~200). 13 species of monkeys and more than 100 species of bats. The estimated number of arthropod species is 500,000. Many of the species are highly endangered, including the Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), Yellow-spotted side-necked turtle (Podocnemis spp). The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has declared Mare de Dios as one of the worlds centers of endemism.

Economic development of the region has been slow. Since the early 20th century minor exploitation of natural resources, rubber, Brazil-nut and hardwood, has been reported in Madre de Dios. Commercial exploitation began 1940 with the extraction of gold. In recent times governmental support for the conversion of forest into pasture for cattle, combined with the encroachment of human settlements around Puerto Maldonado, has been a major threat to the area. The major industries of Madre de Dios include gold, Brazil-nut, tourism, and tinker (Groom 1991).

Aims and Objectives

To contribute to the understanding of the ecology and conservation of Ateles paniscus and other mammals via:

(a) intensive assessment of the status of the species (1-4)
(b) and investigation of the socio-economic and cultural drivers of human interference (i.e. hunting) in the ecology along the Las Piedras river (5-6).

Research Objectives:

1. To investigate the impact of current levels of hunting pressure on neotropical mammal communities over a three month period.
2. To investigate the biomass allocation in mammal communities at sites of different hunting pressure.
3. To reassess the number of Black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus) hunted every year along the Rio de las Piedras and compare this to the study undertaken by V. Velasquez.
4. To provide governmental and non-governmental organisations with detailed information regarding the present conservation status of a number of endangered mammal species, to help implement conservation plans.
5. To investigate the market for bush meat in order to explore the socio-economic drivers of bush meat hunting.
6. To examine potential cultural aspects associated to bush meat hunting that could comprise non-market incentives for hunting.

Methodology

Identification of sites
At least six study sites situated along a gradient in hunting pressure, centred on 13º08´10´´S, 69º36´40´´W, will be identified during 2001. This will be facilitated using satellite imagery in addition to information obtained from timber concession holders. Stakeholder groups will be informed about the project from the beginning and their co-operation secured. The imagery showing habitat information, available from TReeS, will ensure that vegetation characteristics can be controlled for between sites.

Confirmation of the preliminary assigned hunting pressure will be reconsidered during the field period using the following techniques:
- Detailed questionnaires and repeated interviews of hunters conducted by the Peruvian team members
- Count of the number of people working in the area
- Direct evidence of hunting activity that is detectable at the time of the survey
- Frequency of shotgun sounds heard
- Occurrence of hunting trails
- Hammock “waiting stations”
- Old campsites
- Number of spent cartridges on hunting trail

Census Techniques

Assessments of the impact of hunting on diurnal mammal species will be conducted using standardised line transect census techniques (Bodmer et al. 1994; Peres 1999b). Two transects per site will be used. These will be sites at random within the study area around each site. The density of animals will be calculated using software developed especially for the purpose - DISTANCE (Buckland et al.1993). This analysis of density is very effective and compatibility between data sets generated by this method is simple (Buckland et al. 1993). Transects will be cut following a standardised procedure (Peres 1999b; White et al. 2000). Each transect will be censused with the aim of achieving the recommended minimum number of 40 detections per species and transect (Buckland et al.1993). Each census period will be undertaken by two observers, this is for safety reasons and to ensure efficient data collection. Daily rotation of observers and transects will minimise observer bias.

The following data will be recorded:
- Species
- Number of individuals encountered
- Sighting distance to the first animal seen (m)
- Sighting angle (degrees)
- Group width (m)
- Height of the individual observed above the forest floor (m)
- Number of juveniles
- Behaviour: e.g. eating, playing etc.
- Time of day
- Duration of visual contact (min)
- General visibility
- Weather: precipitation, temperature, wind
- Principal detection method (visual or auditory, noise of movement or falling fruit, alarm call, contact call)
- Forest type
- Signs of human activity: e.g. logging

Interview Study

The issues that will be examined regarding the market niche for bush meat comprise:

• Demand and supply; how they are influenced by the price.
• Externalities and the extend to which they are included in the price (accounted for).
• Actors involved in the bush meat market; establish a profile of providers, consumers and intermediaries, their behaviour and what determines it.

To explore the market issues associated to hunting, a set of semi- and unstructured interviews with the different actors (consumers, providers and intermediaries, as well as with government officials and with local NGO responsibles) in the market for bush meat will be conducted.

The issue that will be examined with respect to the non-market incentives to hunting is:

• Cultural assumptions related to hunting (e.g. social connotations of hunting)

To examine non-market drivers to hunting unstructured interviews will be conducted with the hunters. Observation of the hunters life in its natural settings will be collected during visits to their spaces of living and socialising and provide significant complementary information. Participation in at least one hunting expedition will be considered.

Project Impact

We will provide governmental and non-governmental organisations with data on a number of endangered mammal species. The data will be a first time baseline for Las Piedras, which is expected to change very fast with the rapid influx of loggers. The results will likely be used by the ecological and economic zoning committee to help develop regulations regarding sustainable hunting levels. Due to recent political developments, this topic has aroused considerable interest. We hope that our study will raise local awareness regarding the problems associated with the overexploitation of natural resources. We hope to promote dialogue and aid information dissemination with respect to the ecological-economic zoning programme.